| Rurik Dynasty (Russia, Kievan Rus') | Country/Region: Russia, Kievan Rus' (also parts of Ukraine and Belarus) Period: 862–1598 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Rurik (Founder of the dynasty, 9th century) Oleg of Novgorod (882–912) – Expanded the territory to Kiev. Vladimir the Great (980–1015) – Christianized Kievan Rus'. Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) – Known for legal reforms and expansion. Ivan III (Ivan the Great) (1462–1505) – Consolidated Russia and ended Mongol dominance. Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) (1547–1584) – First ruler to be crowned as Tsar of Russia, known for his violent reign. |
| Piast Dynasty (Poland) | Country/Region: Poland Period: 960–1370 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Mieszko I (960–992) – First historical ruler of Poland, Christianized the country. Bolesław I the Brave (992–1025) – First crowned king of Poland. Casimir I the Restorer (1034–1058) – Reunified Poland after a period of disintegration. Władysław I the Elbow-high (1306–1333) – Unified Poland and was crowned king. Casimir III the Great (1333–1370) – Last Piast king, known for reforms and development. |
| Jagiellon Dynasty (Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia) | Country/Region: Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia (now part of the Czech Republic) Period: 1386–1572 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło) (1386–1434) – Founder of the dynasty, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. Władysław III of Poland (1434–1444) – King of Poland and Hungary. Casimir IV Jagiellon (1447–1492) – Oversaw the consolidation of Polish-Lithuanian territories. Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548) – Strengthened the monarchy and promoted the Renaissance. Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572) – Last Jagiellon king, oversaw the Union of Lublin (1569), creating the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. |
| Romanov Dynasty (Russia) | Country/Region: Russia Period: 1613–1917 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Michael I (1613–1645) – First Romanov Tsar, ended the Time of Troubles. Peter I (Peter the Great) (1682–1725) – Modernized Russia, expanded the empire, and moved the capital to Saint Petersburg. Catherine II (Catherine the Great) (1762–1796) – Expanded Russian territory and promoted Westernization. Alexander I (1801–1825) – Defeated Napoleon, reformed the Russian government. Nicholas II (1894–1917) – Last Romanov Tsar, abdicated during the Russian Revolution. |
| Árpád Dynasty (Hungary) | Country/Region: Hungary Period: 895–1301 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Árpád (c. 895–907) – Founder of the dynasty and the ruling prince of the Hungarian tribes. Saint Stephen I (1000–1038) – First King of Hungary, Christianized the country. Béla IV (1235–1270) – Rebuilt Hungary after the Mongol invasion. Andrew II (1205–1235) – Issued the Golden Bull, limiting royal authority and establishing noble rights. Ladislaus IV (1272–1290) – Last prominent king of the dynasty. |
| Obrenović Dynasty (Serbia) | Country/Region: Serbia Period: 1815–1903 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Miloš Obrenović (1815–1839, 1858–1860) – Led the Second Serbian Uprising and secured Serbian autonomy. Mihailo Obrenović III (1839–1842, 1860–1868) – Strengthened Serbia’s independence and reformed the army. Milan I of Serbia (1868–1889) – Proclaimed Serbia a kingdom in 1882. Alexander I of Serbia (1889–1903) – Last ruler of the Obrenović dynasty, assassinated in a military coup. |
| Nemanjić Dynasty (Serbia) | Country/Region: Serbia Period: 1166–1371 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Stefan Nemanja (1166–1196) – Founder of the dynasty and ruler of Serbia. Stefan the First-Crowned (1217–1228) – First King of Serbia. Stefan Dušan (1331–1355) – Expanded the Serbian Empire, crowned Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks. Uroš V (1355–1371) – Last Nemanjić ruler, known as “Uroš the Weak.” |
| Vasa Dynasty (Poland, Lithuania, Sweden) | Country/Region: Poland-Lithuania, Sweden Period: 1587–1668 (in Poland-Lithuania), 1523–1654 (in Sweden) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Sigismund III Vasa (1587–1632) – King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and briefly King of Sweden. Władysław IV Vasa (1632–1648) – King of Poland-Lithuania, maintained the Commonwealth’s stability. John II Casimir Vasa (1648–1668) – Last Vasa ruler in Poland-Lithuania, abdicated after military defeats. |
| Basarab Dynasty (Wallachia, Romania) | Country/Region: Wallachia (now part of Romania) Period: 1310–1601 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Basarab I (1310–1352) – Founder of the dynasty, expanded Wallachia. Vlad III (Vlad the Impaler) (1448, 1456–1462, 1476) – Famous for his brutal rule and the inspiration for Dracula. Mircea I of Wallachia (1386–1418) – Strengthened Wallachian independence from the Ottoman Empire. |
| Drăculești Dynasty (Wallachia, Romania) | Country/Region: Wallachia (now part of Romania) Period: 1456–1601 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Vlad III (Vlad the Impaler) – Notable ruler of the Drăculești branch, infamous for his defense against the Ottomans. Radu the Handsome (1462–1475) – Brother of Vlad the Impaler, often aligned with the Ottoman Empire. |
| Jagellonian Dynasty (Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia) | Country/Region: Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) Period: 14th–16th centuries Prominent Kings/Rulers: Władysław II Jagiełło (King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania) Casimir IV Jagiellon (King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania) Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia (King of Hungary and Bohemia) |
| Gediminid Dynasty (Lithuania, Poland) | Country/Region: Lithuania, Poland Period: 1316–1572 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Gediminas (1316–1341) – Founder of the dynasty, Grand Duke of Lithuania. Vytautas the Great (1392–1430) – Grand Duke of Lithuania, greatly expanded its territory. Jogaila – Grand Duke of Lithuania, King of Poland. |
| Carolingian Dynasty (Frankish Empire, France, Germany, Italy) | Country/Region: Frankish Empire (France, Germany, Northern Italy ) Period: 751–888 (with later branches in various regions) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Pepin the Short (751–768) – Founder of the Carolingian Dynasty, first King of the Franks. Charlemagne (Charles the Great) (768–814) – Expanded the Frankish Empire, crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800. Louis the Pious (814–840) – Son of Charlemagne, ruled as Emperor of the Carolingian Empire. Charles the Bald (843–877) – King of West Francia. Lothair I (817–855) – Ruler of Middle Francia and Emperor of the Romans. |
| Capetian Dynasty (France) | Country/Region: France Period: 987–1328 (main line) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Hugh Capet (987–996) – Founder of the Capetian Dynasty, established hereditary kingship in France. Robert II (Robert the Pious) (996–1031) – Expanded royal control over France. Philip I (1060–1108) – Strengthened the monarchy despite internal revolts. Louis VI (Louis the Fat) (1108–1137) – Asserted royal authority over rebellious nobles. Philip II (Philip Augustus) (1180–1223) – Expanded the French territory and power significantly. |
| Valois Dynasty (France) | Country/Region: France Period: 1328–1589 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Philip VI (1328–1350) – First Valois king, began the Hundred Years' War with England. Charles V (Charles the Wise) (1364–1380) – Restored stability to France after losses in the early stages of the Hundred Years' War. Charles VII (1422–1461) – Drove the English out of much of France with the help of Joan of Arc. Louis XI (1461–1483) – Strengthened the monarchy and centralized control. Francis I (1515–1547) – Patron of the arts, rival of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. |
| Bourbon Dynasty (France, Spain, Naples, and more) | Country/Region: France, Spain, Naples, Parma Period: 1589–1792 (in France), continues in Spain today Prominent Kings/Rulers: Henry IV (1589–1610) – First Bourbon king of France, issued the Edict of Nantes. Louis XIV (The Sun King) (1643–1715) – Reigned for 72 years, the epitome of absolute monarchy. Louis XV (1715–1774) – Oversaw France during a time of great change, though faced domestic turmoil. Louis XVI (1774–1792) – Last king of France before the French Revolution. Philip V of Spain (1700–1746) – First Bourbon king of Spain, established the dynasty there. |
| Habsburg Dynasty (Austria, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Netherlands, etc.) | Country/Region: Austria, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Netherlands Period: 1273–1918 (with branches in different regions) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Maximilian I (1493–1519) – Holy Roman Emperor, expanded the Habsburg domains through marriage alliances. Charles V (1519–1556) – Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, ruler of one of the largest empires in history. Philip II of Spain (1556–1598) – Expanded Spanish power across Europe and the Americas, ruled during Spain’s Golden Age. Maria Theresa (1740–1780) – Empress of Austria, known for her reforms and role in the War of Austrian Succession. |
| Plantagenet Dynasty (England) | Country/Region: England, parts of France Period: 1154–1399 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Henry II (1154–1189) – Founder of the Plantagenet Dynasty, reformed English law and government. Richard I (Richard the Lionheart) (1189–1199) – Famous for his role in the Third Crusade. John (1199–1216) – Signed the Magna Carta, limiting the powers of the monarchy. Edward I (1272–1307) – Known for his military campaigns in Wales and Scotland. Edward III (1327–1377) – Led England in the early stages of the Hundred Years’ War. |
| Tudor Dynasty (England) | Country/Region: England, Wales Period: 1485–1603 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Henry VII (1485–1509) – Founder of the Tudor dynasty, ended the Wars of the Roses. Henry VIII (1509–1547) – Famous for his six marriages and the English Reformation. Edward VI (1547–1553) – Promoted Protestant reforms. Mary I (Bloody Mary) (1553–1558) – Restored Catholicism and persecuted Protestants. Elizabeth I (1558–1603) – Last Tudor monarch, her reign is known as the Elizabethan Era, during which England flourished culturally and militarily. |
| Stuart Dynasty (Scotland, England) | Country/Region: Scotland, England Period: 1371–1714 (Scotland from 1371, England from 1603) Prominent Kings/Rulers: James I (James VI of Scotland) (1603–1625) – Unified the crowns of England and Scotland. Charles I (1625–1649) – His conflicts with Parliament led to the English Civil War and his execution. Charles II (1660–1685) – Restored the monarchy after the English Civil War. James II (1685–1688) – Deposed in the Glorious Revolution due to his Catholic faith. Queen Anne (1702–1714) – Last Stuart monarch, oversaw the union of England and Scotland in 1707. |
| House of Orange-Nassau (Netherlands) | Country/Region: Netherlands Period: 1544–present Prominent Kings/Rulers: William the Silent (1544–1584) – Leader of the Dutch revolt against Spanish rule, founder of the House of Orange. William III of Orange (1672–1702) – Ruled as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland alongside Queen Mary II, and also served as Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic. Queen Wilhelmina (1890–1948) – Guided the Netherlands through two World Wars. Queen Juliana (1948–1980) – Reformed the monarchy, moved the Netherlands toward modernization. |
| House of Savoy (Italy) | Country/Region: Italy, Sardinia Period: 1003–1946 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Victor Emmanuel II (1861–1878) – First King of a unified Italy. Umberto I (1878–1900) – King during Italy’s colonial expansion. Victor Emmanuel III (1900–1946) – Reigned during both World Wars, abdicated in favor of his son. Umberto II (1946) – Last king of Italy, ruled for only a month before the monarchy was abolished. |
| House of Grimaldi (Monaco) | Country/Region: Monaco Period: 1297–present Prominent Kings/Rulers: François Grimaldi (1297) – Founder of the Grimaldi dynasty, captured Monaco by disguising as a monk. Prince Rainier III (1949–2005) – Modernized Monaco and increased its international standing. Prince Albert II (2005–present) – Current ruler, focuses on environmental issues and international relations. |
| Merovingian Dynasty (France) | Country/Region: France (Frankish Kingdom) Period: 481–751 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Clovis I (481–511) – United the Frankish tribes and converted to Christianity. Chlothar II (584–629) – Reunited the Frankish Kingdom. Dagobert I (629– |
| Scandinavian Dynasties House of Oldenburg (Denmark, Norway, Sweden) | Countries/Region: Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Greece Period: 1448–present (in various countries) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Christian I (1448–1481) – First Oldenburg king of Denmark and Norway. Frederick II (1559–1588) – King of Denmark and Norway. Christian IV (1588–1648) – Longest reigning monarch of Denmark. Oscar II of Sweden and Norway (1872–1905) – Last monarch of the union between Sweden and Norway. |
| House of Bernadotte (Sweden, Norway) | Countries/Region: Sweden, Norway Period: 1818–present (in Sweden), 1818–1905 (in Norway) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Charles XIV John (Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte) (1818–1844) – Founder of the Bernadotte dynasty, former French Marshal under Napoleon. Oscar I (1844–1859) – King of Sweden and Norway. Gustaf V (1907–1950) – King during both World Wars. Carl XVI Gustaf (1973–present) – Current King of Sweden. |
| Iberian Dynasties House of Avis (Portugal) | Country/Region: Portugal Period: 1385–1580 Prominent Kings/Rulers: John I of Portugal (1385–1433) – Founder of the Avis dynasty, secured Portuguese independence from Castile. Afonso V (1438–1481) – Led campaigns in North Africa, known as "The African." Manuel I (Manuel the Fortunate) (1495–1521) – His reign saw the height of Portuguese exploration. |
| Iberian Dynasties House of Braganza (Portugal, Brazil) | Country/Region: Portugal, Brazil Period: 1640–1910 (Portugal), 1822–1889 (Brazil) Prominent Kings/Rulers: John IV of Portugal (1640–1656) – Restored Portugal’s independence from Spain. Pedro IV of Portugal / Pedro I of Brazil (1822–1834) – Declared Brazil's independence from Portugal. Maria II (1834–1853) – Queen of Portugal, notable for progressive reforms. |
| Central European Dynasties House of Luxembourg (Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Hungary) | Countries/Region: Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Hungary Period: 1308–1437 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Charles IV (1346–1378) – Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, and promoter of arts and culture. Sigismund (1410–1437) – Holy Roman Emperor, led efforts against the Hussite Rebellion in Bohemia. |
| Central European Dynasties Wettin Dynasty (Saxony, Poland) | Countries/Region: Saxony, Poland Period: 1089–1918 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Frederick Augustus I (1806–1827) – First King of Saxony, led during the Napoleonic Wars. Augustus II the Strong (1697–1733) – King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Friedrich August III (1904–1918) – Last King of Saxony. |
| Central European Dynasties Hohenzollern Dynasty (Prussia, Germany, Romania) | Countries/Region: Prussia, Germany, Romania Period: 1415–1918 (Prussia/Germany), 1866–1947 (Romania) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Frederick II (Frederick the Great) (1740–1786) – Expanded Prussian territory and reformed the military. Wilhelm I (1861–1888) – First Emperor of a unified Germany (from 1871). Carol I of Romania (1866–1914) – First King of Romania. |
| Italian Dynasties House of Medici (Florence, Tuscany) | Country/Region: Florence, Tuscany Period: 1434–1737 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Cosimo de’ Medici (1434–1464) – Established the Medici political dynasty in Florence. Lorenzo de’ Medici (Lorenzo the Magnificent) (1469–1492) – Patron of the Renaissance. Cosimo I de’ Medici (1537–1574) – Elevated to Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1569. |
| Italian Dynasties House of Este (Ferrara, Modena) | Country/Region: Ferrara, Modena Period: 1209–1796 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Borso d’Este (1450–1471) – Elevated to Duke of Modena and Ferrara. Ercole I d'Este (1471–1505) – A key patron of Renaissance culture. Francesco IV of Modena (1814–1846) – Last significant ruler of the Este dynasty. |
| Other Western European Dynasties House of Anjou (France, Naples, Hungary) | Countries/Region: France, Naples, Hungary Period: 1246–1481 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Charles I of Anjou (1246–1285) – Conquered Naples and Sicily, established Anjou's rule in southern Italy. Louis I of Naples (1347–1362) – Claimed the throne of Naples through dynastic ties. |
| Other Western European Dynasties House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Germany, Belgium, United Kingdom, Bulgaria) | Countries/Region: Germany, United Kingdom, Belgium, Bulgaria Period: 1826–present (now under different names) Prominent Kings/Rulers: Leopold I of Belgium (1831–1865) – First King of the Belgians. Albert I of Belgium (1909–1934) – Famous for defending Belgium during World War I. Edward VII of the United Kingdom (1901–1910) – First Saxe-Coburg monarch of the UK (later renamed Windsor). Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (1887–1918) – Declared Bulgaria independent from the Ottoman Empire. |
| Other Western European Dynasties House of Wittelsbach (Bavaria, Palatinate, Sweden) | Countries/Region: Bavaria, Palatinate, Sweden Period: 1180–1918 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Maximilian I (1597–1651) – Duke of Bavaria, prominent during the Thirty Years’ War. Ludwig II (1864–1886) – King of Bavaria, known for his extravagant castles, including Neuschwanstein. Charles X Gustav of Sweden (1654–1660) – King of Sweden, member of a branch of the Wittelsbach dynasty. |
| Eastern European Dynasties (Additional) House of Dragomirović (Serbia) | Country/Region: Serbia Period: 12th–15th century Prominent Kings/Rulers: Stefan Nemanja (1166–1196) – Founder of the Nemanjić dynasty and ancestor of the Dragomirović family. |
| Northern European Dynasties House of Glucksburg (Denmark, Norway, Greece) | Country/Region: Denmark, Norway, Greece Period: 1863–present Prominent Kings/Rulers: Christian IX of Denmark (1863–1906) – Called the "Father-in-law of Europe" due to the marital alliances of his children. Haakon VII of Norway (1905–1957) – First king of Norway after the dissolution of the union with Sweden. Constantine II of Greece (1964–1973) – Last King of Greece before the monarchy was abolished. |
| Ancient Egyptian Dynasties-Old Kingdom | (c. 2686–2181 BCE) Dynasties: 3rd to 6th Dynasties Prominent Pharaohs: Djoser (3rd Dynasty) – Built the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Sneferu (4th Dynasty) – Perfected pyramid construction, father of Khufu. Khufu (Cheops) (4th Dynasty) – Built the Great Pyramid of Giza. Pepi II (6th Dynasty) – Possibly the longest reign in history (94 years). |
| Ancient Egyptian Dynasties-Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE) | Dynasties: 11th to 13th Dynasties Prominent Pharaohs: Mentuhotep II (11th Dynasty) – Reunified Egypt after the First Intermediate Period. Amenemhat I (12th Dynasty) – Established the powerful 12th Dynasty. Senusret I (12th Dynasty) – Expanded Egypt's borders and trade. Amenemhat III (12th Dynasty) – His reign was a period of great prosperity. |
| Ancient Egyptian Dynasties-New Kingdom (c. 1550–1069 BCE) | Dynasties: 18th to 20th Dynasties Prominent Pharaohs: Hatshepsut (18th Dynasty) – One of the most successful female pharaohs. Thutmose III (18th Dynasty) – Expanded Egypt to its greatest territorial extent. Akhenaten (18th Dynasty) – Introduced monotheism by worshiping Aten. Tutankhamun (King Tut) (18th Dynasty) – Famous for his intact tomb discovered in 1922. Ramses II (Ramses the Great) (19th Dynasty) – Known for his military campaigns and monumental building projects. Merneptah (19th Dynasty) – Fought the "Sea Peoples" and mentioned the "Israelites" in his stele. Ramses III (20th Dynasty) – Last great pharaoh of the New Kingdom. |
| Ancient Egyptian Dynasties-Late Period (664–332 BCE) | Dynasties: 26th to 30th Dynasties Prominent Pharaohs: Psamtik I (26th Dynasty) – Reunified Egypt and revitalized its economy. Nectanebo II (30th Dynasty) – Last native pharaoh of Egypt before the Persian conquest. |
| Nubian Dynasties (Kushite Kingdoms)-Kingdom of Kush (c. 1070 BCE – 350 CE) | Countries/Region: Nubia (Modern-day Sudan and southern Egypt) Period: 1070 BCE – 350 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Alara of Kush (8th century BCE) – Founder of the Kushite kingdom. Kashta (c. 750 BCE) – Conquered Upper Egypt. Piye (Piankhi) (c. 744–714 BCE) – Expanded Kushite control over Egypt, founder of the 25th Dynasty of Egypt. Taharqa (690–664 BCE) – Ruled Egypt as the Pharaoh of the 25th Dynasty, known for resisting Assyrian invasion. Aspelta (593–568 BCE) – Led after the retreat of the Kushites from Egypt back to Nubia. |
| Ethiopian Dynasties-Solomonic Dynasty (Ethiopia) | Country/Region: Ethiopia Period: c. 1270–1974 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Menelik I (mythical founder) – Claimed descent from the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Yekuno Amlak (1270–1285) – Restored the Solomonic Dynasty after overthrowing the Zagwe Dynasty. Zara Yaqob (1434–1468) – Strengthened Christianity and central authority. Menelik II (1889–1913) – Defeated Italy at the Battle of Adwa, preserving Ethiopian independence. Haile Selassie I (1930–1974) – Last Emperor of Ethiopia, a key figure in African independence movements, deposed in 1974. |
| Ethiopian Dynasties-Zagwe Dynasty (Ethiopia) | Country/Region: Ethiopia Period: c. 900–1270 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Gebre Mesqel Lalibela (1181–1221) – Famous for constructing the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela. Harbay – Last known king of the Zagwe Dynasty before being overthrown by the Solomonic dynasty. |
| West African Dynasties Ghana Empire (Wagadou Empire) | Country/Region: Modern-day Mali, Mauritania, and Senegal Period: c. 300–1200 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Ghana Kaya Maghan Cissé (mythical founder) – Title “Ghana” means warrior king. Tunka Manin (1062–1076) – Known for his wealth and military power. |
| West African Dynasties-Mali Empire | Country/Region: Modern-day Mali, Senegal, Guinea Period: 1235–1600 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Sundiata Keita (1235–1255) – Founder of the Mali Empire, hero of the "Epic of Sundiata." Mansa Musa (1312–1337) – Famous for his immense wealth and pilgrimage to Mecca, which introduced the empire to Europe and the Middle East. Mansa Maghan I (1337–1341) – Succeeded Mansa Musa. |
| West African Dynasties-Songhai Empire | Country/Region: Modern-day Mali, Niger, Nigeria Period: 1430–1591 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Sonni Ali (1464–1492) – Expanded the empire significantly and captured Timbuktu. Askia Muhammad I (Askia the Great) (1493–1528) – Reformed the administration and encouraged Islamic learning. |
| Central African Dynasties-Kingdom of Kongo | Country/Region: Modern-day Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo Period: 1390–1914 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Lukeni lua Nimi (founder) – Established the Kongo kingdom in the late 14th century. Nzinga a Nkuwu (1470–1509) – First Kongo king to convert to Christianity, taking the name João I. Afonso I of Kongo (1509–1542) – Expanded Christianity and trade with Portugal. |
| Central African Dynasties-Luba Empire | Country/Region: Democratic Republic of the Congo Period: c. 1585–1889 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe – Mythical founder of the Luba state. Kalala Ilunga (c. 1600) – Early king, considered a cultural hero. |
| North African Dynasties (Outside of Egypt)-Almoravid Dynasty | Country/Region: Morocco, Western Sahara, parts of Spain Period: 1040–1147 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Yusuf ibn Tashfin (1061–1106) – Founder of the Almoravid Empire, key figure in the expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain. |
| North African Dynasties (Outside of Egypt)-Almohad Dynasty | Country/Region: Morocco, Algeria, Spain Period: 1121–1269 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Abd al-Mu’min (1130–1163) – Founder of the Almohad Caliphate. Yaqub al-Mansur (1184–1199) – Built Rabat, expanded Almohad territory in Spain. |
| North African Dynasties (Outside of Egypt)-Hafsid Dynasty | Country/Region: Tunisia, parts of Algeria and Libya Period: 1229–1574 CE Prominent Kings/Rulers: Abu Zakariya (1229–1249) – Founder of the Hafsid dynasty. Muhammad I al-Mustansir (1249–1277) – Expanded the Hafsid rule and established trade relations with Europe. |
| Southern African Dynasties Kingdom of Zimbabwe (Munhumutapa Empire) | Country/Region: Modern-day Zimbabwe, Mozambique Period: c. 1450–1629 Prominent Kings/Rulers: Nyatsimba Mutota (c. 1430–1450) – Founder of the Mutapa Empire, expanded territories into modern Zimbabwe. Matope (c. 1480) – Ruled the empire at its height, controlling trade along the Swahili Coast. |
| Ptolemaic Dynasty | Country/Region: Egypt Period: 305 BCE – 30 BCE Founded by: Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander the Great’s generals, after Alexander's death in 323 BCE. Dynasty’s End: Ended with Cleopatra VII's reign and Egypt's annexation by Rome in 30 BCE. Cleopatra VII: Reign: 51 BCE – 30 BCE Dynastic Origins: The Ptolemaic dynasty was of Macedonian Greek origin, established after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt. Despite ruling Egypt, the Ptolemies maintained their Greek culture, but Cleopatra was notable for being the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language. Famous for: Her relationships with Roman leaders Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, as well as her political maneuvering to maintain Egypt's independence against Rome. Cleopatra's death marked the end of both her reign and the Ptolemaic dynasty, after which Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire. |
| Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BCE) | Considered: Semi-legendary, often regarded as the first dynasty of China. Key Figures: Yu the Great – Founder of the Xia Dynasty, known for his flood control efforts. |
| Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) | Known for: Early bronze work, oracle bones, and writing system development. Key Figures: King Tang – Founder of the Shang Dynasty. King Wu Ding – Notable for expanding Shang territory and military success. |
| Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) | Divided into: Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE) and Eastern Zhou (770–256 BCE), which includes the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Key Figures: King Wu of Zhou – Overthrew the Shang Dynasty, founding the Zhou Dynasty. King Wen of Zhou – Preceded King Wu, considered a co-founder of the dynasty. |
| Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) | Known for: The first unified Chinese empire, legalism, and the beginning of the Great Wall of China. Key Figures: Qin Shi Huang (First Emperor) – Unified China in 221 BCE, known for building the Terracotta Army and initiating large-scale projects like the Great Wall. |
| Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) | Known for: Confucianism becoming the state ideology, the Silk Road trade, and a flourishing cultural period. Divided into: Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE). Key Figures: Emperor Gaozu of Han (Liu Bang) – Founder of the Han Dynasty, ended the Qin rule. Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE) – Expanded China’s territory and opened the Silk Road. Emperor Guangwu (Eastern Han) – Restored the Han Dynasty after the Wang Mang usurpation. |
| Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 CE) | Divided into: Wei, Shu, and Wu Kingdoms. Key Figures: Cao Cao – Ruler of the Wei Kingdom. Liu Bei – Founder of Shu Han, known for his virtue. Sun Quan – Founder of the Eastern Wu Kingdom. |
| Jin Dynasty (265–420 CE) | Divided into: Western Jin (265–316) and Eastern Jin (317–420). Key Figures: Sima Yan (Emperor Wu of Jin) – Founder of the Jin Dynasty, unified China after the Three Kingdoms period. |
| Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589 CE) | Period: Marked by political fragmentation and wars between the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Key Figures: Various rulers in the Northern Wei, Southern Liang, and other regional dynasties. |
| Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE) | Known for: Reuniting China after a period of fragmentation and building the Grand Canal. Key Figures: Emperor Wen of Sui – Founder, initiated reforms that centralized power. Emperor Yang of Sui – Expanded infrastructure, but his extravagance led to the dynasty’s fall. |
| Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) | Known for: A golden age of Chinese culture, poetry, and cosmopolitanism; expanding the empire's influence over Central Asia and the Silk Road. Key Figures: Emperor Taizong of Tang (626–649) – Consolidated Tang power and expanded the empire. Empress Wu Zetian (690–705) – The only female emperor in Chinese history. Emperor Xuanzong (712–756) – Patron of the arts, his reign saw the height and decline of the Tang Dynasty (due to the An Lushan Rebellion). |
| Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960 CE) | Period: Political fragmentation between the Tang and Song Dynasties. Key Dynasties: Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, Later Zhou. Key Figures: Regional warlords and rulers of short-lived dynasties. |
| Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) | Divided into: Northern Song (960–1127) and Southern Song (1127–1279). Known for: Cultural and technological advancements, including gunpowder, printing, and navigation. Key Figures: Emperor Taizu of Song – Founder of the Song Dynasty, reunified much of China. Emperor Huizong – Known for his patronage of the arts but also for overseeing the fall of the Northern Song. |
| Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 CE) | Founded by: Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, as part of the Mongol Empire. Known for: The first foreign dynasty to rule all of China and integration with the Mongol Empire. Key Figures: Kublai Khan (1271–1294) – Unified China under Mongol rule and established the Yuan Dynasty. |
| Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) | Known for: Restoring native Chinese rule, economic expansion, and famous naval voyages under Zheng He. Key Figures: Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang) – Founder of the Ming Dynasty, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty. Emperor Yongle – Sponsored Zheng He’s voyages and moved the capital to Beijing, where the Forbidden City was built. Emperor Wanli – His reign saw the beginning of the Ming Dynasty’s decline. |
| Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE) | Known for: The last imperial dynasty of China, ruled by the Manchus, and China’s interaction with the West during the Opium Wars. Key Figures: Emperor Kangxi (1661–1722) – Long-reigning and expanded the Qing Empire’s territory. Emperor Qianlong (1735–1796) – His reign marked the peak of Qing power and prosperity. Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) – De facto ruler during the late Qing period, oversaw the decline of the dynasty. Puyi – The last emperor of China, abdicated in 1912 after the Xinhai Revolution. |
| Republic of China (1912–1949) | Key Figures: Sun Yat-sen – Leader of the Xinhai Revolution and the first president of the Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek – Leader of the Nationalist Party, which governed China until the communist takeover. |
| People's Republic of China (1949–Present) | Founded by: Mao Zedong, leader of the Communist Party of China (CPC), after the defeat of the Nationalists. |
| Legendary and Ancient Japan (Jomon to Yayoi Periods) Yamato Clan / Imperial Line (c. 660 BCE – Present) | Country/Region: Japan Claimed Founder: Emperor Jimmu (660 BCE), regarded as the first emperor of Japan, mythologically descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu. Period: The Yamato period marks the rise of the imperial line that still exists today. Prominent Figures: Emperor Jimmu (660 BCE) – Mythical first emperor of Japan, said to have united the country. Empress Jingū (c. 200 CE) – Legendary empress and regent, often depicted as a military leader. |
| Asuka Period (538–710 CE) | Known for: Introduction of Buddhism, Chinese cultural influence, and the establishment of centralized rule. Key Figures: Prince Shōtoku (574–622) – A key figure in promoting Buddhism and Confucianism, credited with developing the Seventeen-Article Constitution. Empress Suiko (592–628) – The first recorded empress of Japan, instrumental in promoting Buddhism. |
| Nara Period (710–794 CE) | Known for: The establishment of the first permanent capital at Nara, and the compilation of the "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki" (early historical chronicles). Key Figures: Emperor Shōmu (724–749) – Promoted Buddhism as the state religion and oversaw the construction of the Todai-ji Temple and the Great Buddha in Nara. Empress Kōmyō – Shōmu’s wife, played a significant role in promoting Buddhism. |
| Heian Period (794–1185 CE) | Known for: The flourishing of Japanese culture, literature (like "The Tale of Genji"), and aristocratic dominance by the Fujiwara Clan. Key Figures: Emperor Kanmu (781–806) – Moved the capital to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), starting the Heian Period. Fujiwara no Michinaga (966–1027) – Powerful regent who dominated the imperial court, symbolizing the height of Fujiwara influence. |
| Kamakura Period (1185–1333 CE) | Kamakura Shogunate (1185–1333 CE) Founded by: Minamoto no Yoritomo after defeating the Taira Clan in the Genpei War. Known for: Establishment of the first shogunate (military government), in which the shogun (military ruler) held real power while the emperor was a figurehead. Key Figures: Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199) – Founder of the Kamakura Shogunate and the first shogun of Japan. Hōjō Masako – Yoritomo’s wife, played a key role in managing the shogunate after his death. Hōjō Tokimune – Regarded for his defense against the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281. |
| Muromachi Period (1336–1573 CE) | Ashikaga Shogunate (1336–1573 CE) Founded by: Ashikaga Takauji, who overthrew the Kamakura Shogunate. Known for: The rise of samurai culture and the flourishing of arts, including the development of tea ceremonies, Noh theater, and Zen Buddhism. Key Figures: Ashikaga Takauji (1305–1358) – Founder of the Ashikaga Shogunate. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358–1408) – A significant patron of the arts and established the Golden Pavilion (Kinkaku-ji). Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436–1490) – His reign saw the outbreak of the Onin War, which began the Sengoku (Warring States) period. |
| Sengoku Period (1467–1600 CE) | Known for: A time of almost continuous military conflict between feudal lords (daimyos) vying for power. This period eventually led to the unification of Japan under three great unifiers. Key Figures: Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582) – Began the process of unifying Japan, known for his ruthless military tactics and introduction of modern firearms in warfare. Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537–1598) – Continued Nobunaga's work and achieved the near-complete unification of Japan. Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) – Completed the unification of Japan and established the Tokugawa Shogunate. |
| Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573–1600 CE) | Known for: The final stages of the unification of Japan under Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and the flourishing of the arts and architecture. Key Figures: Toyotomi Hideyoshi – Expanded Japanese territory and centralized governance. |
| Edo Period (1603–1868 CE) | Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868 CE) Founded by: Tokugawa Ieyasu after his victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Known for: A period of peace, isolation (sakoku), strict social order, economic growth, and the flourishing of culture like ukiyo-e and kabuki theater. Key Figures: Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) – Founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Tokugawa Iemitsu (1604–1651) – Strengthened the shogunate's control, enforced Japan's isolation policy. Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1837–1913) – The last shogun, who resigned during the Meiji Restoration. |
| Meiji Period (1868–1912 CE) | Known for: The Meiji Restoration, which restored imperial rule under Emperor Meiji and ended the shogunate. Japan underwent rapid modernization and westernization. Key Figures: Emperor Meiji (1852–1912) – Oversaw the transformation of Japan from a feudal society into a modern industrialized nation. |
| Taisho Period (1912–1926 CE) | Known for: The rise of democratic movements and liberal policies, though overshadowed by increasing military influence. Key Figures: Emperor Taisho – His reign is associated with Japan’s continued modernization and the rise of parliamentary democracy. |
| Showa Period (1926–1989 CE) | Known for: World War II, the rise of militarism, Japan’s post-war recovery, and rapid economic growth during the latter half of the 20th century. Key Figures: Emperor Hirohito (Emperor Showa) – Ruled during World War II and the transformation of Japan into a peaceful and prosperous democracy after the war. |
| Heisei Period (1989–2019 CE) | Known for: The collapse of Japan’s asset price bubble, slow economic growth, and major natural disasters like the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. Key Figures: Emperor Akihito – First emperor in over two centuries to abdicate, which he did in 2019. |
| Reiwa Period (2019–Present) | Known for: The current period, marked by political stability but also challenges like the COVID-19 pandemic. Key Figures: Emperor Naruhito – Ascended to the throne in 2019 after his father’s abdication. |
| Xiongnu Empire (c. 209 BCE – 93 CE) | Country/Region: Mongolian Steppe, Central Asia Known for: A powerful nomadic confederation, one of the earliest known in the region. Key Figures: Modu Chanyu (c. 209–174 BCE) – Founder of the Xiongnu Empire, expanded its territory and organized it into a powerful confederation, often clashing with the Han Dynasty of China. |
| Rouran Khaganate (330–555 CE) | Country/Region: Mongolia, Central Asia Known for: Dominating the Mongolian steppe before the rise of the Göktürks. Key Figures: Yujiulü Shelun – Founder of the Rouran Khaganate, known for resisting the Northern Wei Dynasty in China. |
| Göktürk Khaganate (552–744 CE) | Country/Region: Mongolia, Central Asia, Eastern Europe Known for: The first nomadic empire to use the name "Turk," which laid the foundation for Turkic dominance in Central Asia. Key Figures: Bumin Qaghan – Founder of the Göktürk Khaganate. Tardu Khan – Ruled the western part of the empire, engaged in numerous conflicts with neighboring states. |
| Uyghur Khaganate (744–840 CE) | Country/Region: Mongolia, Central Asia Known for: A powerful confederation of Turkic tribes that flourished in the steppe. Key Figures: Qutlugh Bilge Kül Qaghan – Founder of the Uyghur Khaganate. |
| Liao Dynasty / Khitan Empire (907–1125 CE) | Country/Region: Northern China, Mongolia Known for: A Khitan-led dynasty that ruled parts of Northern China and Mongolia. Key Figures: Abaoji (Emperor Taizu) – Founder of the Liao Dynasty, expanded Khitan control into China and Mongolia. |
| Mongol Empire (1206–1368 CE)-Founded by: Genghis Khan (Temujin | Country/Region: Mongolia, Central Asia, China, Persia, Russia, Eastern Europe Known for: The largest contiguous empire in history, stretching from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe at its peak. Key Figures: Genghis Khan (1206–1227) – Founder and first Great Khan (Khagan) of the Mongol Empire. He united the Mongol tribes and embarked on a series of conquests that changed world history. Ögedei Khan (1229–1241) – Son of Genghis Khan, expanded the empire further into Europe and Asia. Kublai Khan (1260–1294) – Grandson of Genghis Khan, he founded the Yuan Dynasty in China and became the first non-Chinese emperor to rule all of China. Hulagu Khan (1218–1265) – Another grandson of Genghis Khan, he led the conquest of Persia and founded the Ilkhanate in the Middle East. Batu Khan (1207–1255) – Grandson of Genghis Khan, founder of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia and Eastern Europe. |
| Mongol Empire (1206–1368 CE)-Mongol Empire Split (after 1260 CE) | After Genghis Khan's death and subsequent rulers, the Mongol Empire fractured into several major khanates: Yuan Dynasty (China) – Founded by Kublai Khan. Ilkhanate (Persia) – Founded by Hulagu Khan. Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia) – Founded by Chagatai Khan, son of Genghis Khan. Golden Horde (Russia, Eastern Europe) – Founded by Batu Khan. |
| Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 CE) | Founded by: Kublai Khan (A branch of the Mongol Empire) Country/Region: China, Mongolia Known for: The Mongol-led dynasty that ruled China. The Yuan Dynasty represented the high point of Mongol rule in China and Mongolia. Key Figures: Kublai Khan (1260–1294) – Founder of the Yuan Dynasty and ruler of both China and Mongolia. Known for his cultural and administrative reforms that integrated Mongol and Chinese governance. Temür Khan (1294–1307) – Successor of Kublai, continued to rule both China and Mongolia. |
| Northern Yuan Dynasty (1368–1635 CE) | Founded by: Tögüs Temür Country/Region: Mongolia Known for: After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty in China due to the Ming uprising, the Mongols retreated to the Mongolian steppe and continued to claim legitimacy under the Northern Yuan. Key Figures: Biligtü Khan (1370–1378) – Tried to restore the Mongol Empire but failed. Dayan Khan (1464–1517) – A powerful Mongol leader who united the Eastern and Western Mongols. Altan Khan (1507–1582) – Notable for his relations with Tibet and for inviting the third Dalai Lama to Mongolia. |
| Zunghar Khanate (1634–1755 CE) | Country/Region: Western Mongolia, Eastern Kazakhstan, parts of Xinjiang Known for: The Zunghar Khanate was one of the last great Mongol empires that resisted Qing China and expanded westward. Key Figures: Galdan Boshugtu Khan (1644–1697) – A powerful Zunghar leader who clashed with the Qing Dynasty. Tsewang Rabtan (1694–1727) – Led the Zunghar Khanate to its greatest power |
| Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 CE) | Country/Region: China, Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) Known for: The Manchu-led Qing Dynasty ruled China and Mongolia, and eventually incorporated Mongolia as part of the empire. Key Figures: Emperor Kangxi – Brought Mongolia under Qing control through military campaigns against the Zunghars. Emperor Qianlong – Expanded Qing control over Mongolia and the rest of Central Asia. |
| Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1924 CE) | Country/Region: Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) Founded by: The 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, known as Bogd Khan. Known for: Mongolia declared independence from the Qing Dynasty after its collapse in 1911. The Bogd Khanate was a theocratic state, with the religious leader, Bogd Khan, as its head. Key Figures: Bogd Khan (1869–1924) – The spiritual and political leader of Mongolia during its short-lived independence before becoming a communist state under Soviet influence. |
| Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992 CE) | Country/Region: Mongolia Founded by: Mongolian revolutionaries with Soviet support, abolishing the monarchy. Known for: Establishment of a communist government under Soviet influence, ending centuries of monarchic rule. Key Figures: Khorloogiin Choibalsan – Leader of Mongolia’s Communist Party, closely aligned with the Soviet Union. |
| Modern Mongolia (1992–Present) | Known for: Transition to a democratic republic in 1992 following the fall of communism in the Soviet Union. Key Figures: Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat – The first president of post-communist Mongolia. |
| Maurya Dynasty (c. 321 BCE – 185 BCE) | Country/Region: India (North India, Central India, parts of South India) Known for: The first major empire in India, known for its extensive political and military achievements as well as its promotion of Buddhism. Key Figures: Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321–297 BCE) – Founder of the Maurya Empire, unified most of India. Bindusara (297–273 BCE) – Son of Chandragupta, expanded the empire. Ashoka the Great (268–232 BCE) – The most famous Mauryan ruler, who spread Buddhism across Asia and inscribed his policies on the Ashokan Edicts. |
| Gupta Dynasty (c. 320–550 CE) | Country/Region: North India Known for: The "Golden Age of India," noted for significant advancements in science, literature, art, and mathematics. Key Figures: Chandragupta I (c. 320–335 CE) – Founder of the Gupta Empire. Samudragupta (c. 335–375 CE) – Great military leader and patron of the arts. Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (c. 375–415 CE) – Expanded the empire to its zenith, known for promoting classical Indian culture. |
| Kushan Empire (c. 30–375 CE) | Country/Region: Northern India, Central Asia Known for: Promoting trade along the Silk Road, cultural integration, and the spread of Buddhism. Key Figures: Kujula Kadphises (c. 30–80 CE) – Founder of the Kushan Empire. Kanishka the Great (c. 127–150 CE) – Famous for his military, religious, and cultural achievements; a major patron of Buddhism. |
| Satavahana Dynasty (c. 1st century BCE – 3rd century CE) | Country/Region: Deccan, South India Known for: One of the earliest South Indian empires, promoting trade and cultural exchange between the north and the south. Key Figures: Simuka – Founder of the Satavahana Dynasty. Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 78–102 CE) – The most powerful Satavahana ruler, expanded the empire to its greatest extent. |
| Chalukya Dynasty (c. 543–753 CE, 973–1190 CE) | Country/Region: Central and South India Known for: Prominent rulers and their contributions to Indian architecture and culture, particularly in Karnataka. Key Figures: Pulakeshin I – Founder of the Chalukya dynasty. Pulakeshin II (609–642 CE) – Defeated Harsha of North India and extended the empire. Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126 CE) – Known for the Chalukya renaissance and architectural achievements. |
| Pallava Dynasty (c. 275–897 CE) | Country/Region: South India (Tamil Nadu) Known for: Contributing to Dravidian architecture and establishing important temples like Mahabalipuram. Key Figures: Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) – Patron of the arts and architecture. Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) – Expanded Pallava territory and defeated the Chalukyas. |
| Rashtrakuta Dynasty (c. 753–982 CE) | Country/Region: Deccan, South India Known for: A powerful dynasty that ruled over large parts of South and Central India and contributed to literature and architecture. Key Figures: Dantidurga – Founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Amoghavarsha I (814–878 CE) – A great patron of literature and art, often considered one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers. |
| Chola Dynasty (c. 300 BCE – 1279 CE) | Country/Region: South India (Tamil Nadu) Known for: The longest-ruling dynasty in South India, known for its naval power, trade relations, and contributions to art and architecture. Key Figures: Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014 CE) – Expanded the Chola Empire into Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE) – Further expanded the empire and led a successful naval expedition to Southeast Asia. Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1122 CE) – Strengthened the empire’s international trade connections. |
| Pala Dynasty (c. 750–1174 CE) | Country/Region: Bengal, Bihar (Eastern India) Known for: Patronage of Buddhism and extensive trade networks with Southeast Asia. Key Figures: Gopala (750–770 CE) – Founder of the Pala dynasty. Dharmapala (770–810 CE) – Expanded the empire to its greatest extent, known for patronizing Nalanda University. Devapala (810–850 CE) – Continued the expansion and consolidation of the Pala Empire. |
| Rajput Dynasties (c. 6th century CE – 19th century CE) | Country/Region: North India, Central India Known for: The Rajputs were a collection of warrior clans that ruled various kingdoms and principalities in North India. They resisted Muslim invasions and maintained independence for centuries. Key Dynasties: Pratihara Dynasty (c. 6th–11th century CE) – Known for their resistance to the Arab invasions and controlling large parts of North India. Sisodia Dynasty (Mewar) – Famous for figures like Rana Kumbha, Maharana Pratap. Chauhan Dynasty – Known for Prithviraj Chauhan, who fought against Muhammad of Ghor. |
| Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) | Country/Region: North India Known for: A period of Muslim rule in India before the rise of the Mughal Empire, comprising several dynasties. Key Dynasties: Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (1206–1290 CE) – Founded by Qutb al-Din Aibak, known for the construction of the Qutb Minar. Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320 CE) – Expanded the Sultanate into South India under Alauddin Khilji. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 CE) – Known for figures like Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who implemented bold but failed administrative reforms. Lodhi Dynasty (1451–1526 CE) – The last dynasty of the Sultanate, ended with Ibrahim Lodhi's defeat by Babur. |
| Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE) | Country/Region: South India Known for: A powerful Hindu empire in Southern India that resisted Muslim invasions and promoted culture, trade, and architecture. Key Figures: Harihara I (1336–1356 CE) – Co-founder of the Vijayanagara Empire. Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE) – The most famous Vijayanagara ruler, known for his military successes and patronage of art and literature. |
| Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE) | Country/Region: Large parts of India, including North and Central India Known for: One of the most powerful and culturally influential empires in Indian history, known for its monumental architecture, including the Taj Mahal. Key Figures: Babur (1526–1530 CE) – Founder of the Mughal Empire after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi at the Battle of Panipat. Akbar the Great (1556–1605 CE) – Known for his military conquests, religious tolerance, and administrative reforms. Shah Jahan (1628–1658 CE) – Known for building the Taj Mahal. Aurangzeb (1658–1707 CE) – Expanded the empire to its greatest extent but his reign marked the beginning of the empire’s decline. |
| Maratha Empire (1674–1818 CE) | Country/Region: Central and Western India Known for: Resisting Mughal domination and establishing a powerful |
| Khmer Empire (c. 802–1431 CE) | Country/Region: Cambodia Capital: Angkor Known for: The largest and most powerful kingdom in Southeast Asia during its peak, famous for the construction of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, as well as its rich cultural heritage in architecture, art, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism). Key Figures: Jayavarman II (c. 802–835 CE) – The founder of the Khmer Empire, who declared himself "god-king" and unified the region. Suryavarman II (1113–1150 CE) – Built the famous Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu. Jayavarman VII (1181–1218 CE) – A great warrior king who expanded the empire and built numerous temples, including Angkor Thom and the Bayon. |
| Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351–1767 CE) | Country/Region: Thailand Capital: Ayutthaya Known for: A powerful Siamese kingdom known for its wealth, international trade, and cultural achievements. It was one of the longest-lasting and most prosperous kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Key Figures: King Uthong (Ramathibodi I) (1351–1369 CE) – Founder of Ayutthaya, who established Theravada Buddhism as the state religion. King Naresuan (1590–1605 CE) – Known for his military victories over the Burmese and for establishing Siam as a dominant power in the region. King Narai the Great (1656–1688 CE) – Known for fostering trade and diplomacy with European powers, particularly France. |
| Sukhothai Kingdom (1238–1438 CE) | Country/Region: Thailand Capital: Sukhothai Known for: Often regarded as the first Thai kingdom, Sukhothai is remembered for its art, culture, and the development of the Thai script. It was a precursor to the Ayutthaya Kingdom. Key Figures: King Ramkhamhaeng (1279–1298 CE) – Credited with creating the Thai alphabet and expanding the kingdom's influence across Southeast Asia. |
| Pagan Empire (849–1297 CE) | Country/Region: Myanmar (Burma) Capital: Pagan (Bagan) Known for: The first Burmese kingdom to unify the region and the construction of thousands of Buddhist temples in Bagan, which became a center of Theravada Buddhism. Key Figures: Anawrahta (1044–1077 CE) – Founder of the Pagan Empire, who consolidated the kingdom and promoted Theravada Buddhism. Kyanzittha (1084–1113 CE) – Continued the kingdom’s expansion and oversaw a cultural renaissance. |
| Toungoo Dynasty (1510–1752 CE) | Country/Region: Myanmar (Burma) Known for: A powerful Burmese dynasty that unified much of Southeast Asia and established a large empire, reaching its peak under King Bayinnaung. Key Figures: Tabinshwehti (1531–1550 CE) – Founder of the dynasty, who unified Lower Burma and expanded the kingdom. Bayinnaung (1550–1581 CE) – One of the greatest kings of Southeast Asia, who expanded the empire to include parts of Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. |
| Majapahit Empire (1293–1527 CE) | Country/Region: Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, and surrounding islands) Capital: Trowulan Known for: The last major Hindu-Buddhist empire in Indonesia, known for its military prowess, vast trade networks, and influence across Southeast Asia. Key Figures: Raden Wijaya (1293–1309 CE) – Founder of the Majapahit Empire, who established the kingdom in Java after defeating the Mongols. Hayam Wuruk (1334–1389 CE) – The greatest ruler of Majapahit, under whom the empire reached its zenith, controlling much of the Indonesian archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, and parts of the Philippines. |
| Srivijaya Empire (c. 7th century–13th century CE) | Country/Region: Sumatra, Indonesia (also parts of the Malay Peninsula and surrounding islands) Capital: Palembang Known for: A dominant maritime empire and trading power that controlled trade routes in the Strait of Malacca and the Java Sea, and for spreading Mahayana Buddhism. Key Figures: Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa (7th century CE) – Founder of Srivijaya, who expanded the empire's influence over maritime Southeast Asia. Balaputradewa (c. 9th century CE) – The most prominent ruler of Srivijaya, who strengthened the empire's trading networks and Buddhist connections with India. |
| Sailendra Dynasty (c. 8th–9th century CE) | Country/Region: Central Java, Indonesia Known for: The Sailendra dynasty is famous for its monumental Buddhist architecture, especially the construction of Borobudur, the largest Buddhist temple in the world. Key Figures: King Samaratungga (c. 8th century CE) – Known for overseeing the construction of Borobudur and promoting Mahayana Buddhism. |
| Champa Kingdom (c. 192–1832 CE) | Country/Region: Central and Southern Vietnam Known for: An Indianized kingdom, Champa was known for its naval strength, trade, and the construction of Hindu temples, such as those at My Son. Key Figures: Po Klong Garai (13th century CE) – A significant ruler remembered for building impressive Hindu temples. Che Bong Nga (1360–1390 CE) – Known as one of Champa’s greatest kings, who launched successful raids against the Dai Viet to the north. |
| Kingdom of Lan Xang (1354–1707 CE) | Country/Region: Laos Known for: A powerful Laotian kingdom known for its promotion of Buddhism and its role as a regional power before splitting into smaller kingdoms. Key Figures: Fa Ngum (1354–1373 CE) – Founder of the Lan Xang kingdom, known for unifying the region and promoting Theravada Buddhism. Setthathirath (1548–1571 CE) – Known for resisting Burmese invasions and establishing Vientiane as the capital, where he built the famous Pha That Luang stupa. |
| Malacca Sultanate (1400–1511 CE) | Country/Region: Malaysia (Malacca) Known for: A powerful Malay kingdom and a major trading center in the Indian Ocean, which played a crucial role in the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia. Key Figures: Parameswara (1400–1414 CE) – Founder of the Malacca Sultanate, who converted to Islam and established Malacca as a key trading port. Sultan Mansur Shah (1459–1477 CE) – Known for expanding the Malacca Sultanate’s influence and promoting Islam. |
| Tondo Kingdom (c. 900–1571 CE) | Country/Region: Philippines (Luzon) Known for: One of the early polities in the Philippines, known for trade with China, India, and neighboring Southeast Asian kingdoms. Key Figures: Lakandula (16th century CE) – One of the rulers of Tondo at the time of the Spanish arrival in the Philippines, known for his initial resistance and later cooperation with the Spanish |
| Mataram Sultanate (c. 1586–1755 CE) | Country/Region: Central Java, Indonesia Known for: A powerful Javanese kingdom that resisted Dutch colonization and became known for its vibrant court culture and architecture. Key Figures: Sultan Agung (1613–1645 CE) – The greatest ruler of Mataram, known for his military campaigns against Dutch colonizers and for promoting Islamic culture in Java. |